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• Marine biota of the Antarctic
  ...to 1,000 m. More than 95% of the shelf is at depths outside the reaches of sea ice keels scouring the seafloor, wave action, scuba divers and sunlight or ...insights into the biodiversity and biogeography of the Southern Ocean deep sea, ''Nature'', '''447'''(7142), 307-311.</ref>), reveal tens to hundreds of p
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• Meteorological and ozone observing in the Antarctic
  ...s are much milder than the interior due to the moderating influence of the sea and, at the more local scale, the surrounding rock. Automatic stations are ...dy because of the frequent passage of depressions and the influence of the sea. The further a station is inland, the less cloudy it becomes. Signy has an
  59 KB (9,046 words) - 15:33, 6 August 2014
• Near-shore marine disturbances over the next 100 years
  ...marginal ice shelves year round, and seasonally on the shelf below winter sea ice. Both in the shallows (Smale et al., 2007<ref name="Smale et al, 2007"> ...over the next 100 years, possibly increasing to 1.5&ordm;C in the Amundsen Sea, while winter SSTs remain within 0.5&ordm;C of where they are now, except l
  54 KB (8,443 words) - 17:49, 22 August 2014
• Observations, data accuracy and tools
  ...their applications were in the more physical areas of climate, ice sheet, sea ice and ocean modelling. However, they are now starting to be employed in b #[[Sea ice observations]]
  2 KB (307 words) - 16:44, 6 August 2014
• Observations for studies of environmental change in the Antarctic
  ...ere (known as &lsquo;geospace&rsquo;), coastal sea ice conditions, and sea level. These observations have produced instrumental records that are in many cas
  5 KB (752 words) - 15:09, 22 August 2014
• Observations of Antarctic permafrost
  ..., it ranges from 15 to 180 m in thickness depending on elevation above sea level (Borzotta and Trombotto, 2003<ref name="Borzotta and Trombotto, 2003">Borzo
  23 KB (3,347 words) - 19:33, 22 August 2014
• Observations of marine biology
  ...Living Resources), but also to monitor the impact of climate change at any level of ecosystem organisation. ...increased supplies of planktonic phytodetritus as a source of food for the sea-floor.
  23 KB (3,516 words) - 15:33, 6 August 2014
• Observations of the ice sheet
  ...new data from the SIRAL instrument specifically designed for ice sheet and sea ice observations. ...he Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets and shelves and contributions to sea-level rise: 1992-2002, ''Journal of Glaciology'', '''51'''(175), 509-527.</ref>).
  52 KB (8,045 words) - 15:43, 22 August 2014
• Ocean models of the Southern Ocean
  ...surface and near surface layers. Detailed studies of density currents, the sea ice field and other key regions provide further local checks on model perfo ...="Coward and Cuevas, 2005">Coward, A. and De Cuevas, B. 2005. The OCCAM 66 level model: model description, physics, initial conditions and external forcing,
  37 KB (5,859 words) - 15:33, 6 August 2014
• Pathways of research in cold-adapted organisms and climate change
  ...d web by altering regional and local current patterns. Although changes in sea temperature are as yet small, increased warming may cause sub-lethal effect ...cosystems in a changing world, ''Nature'', '''437''', 362-368.</ref>). The sea north of the Arctic Circle is almost completely enclosed and influenced by
  25 KB (3,663 words) - 15:33, 6 August 2014
• Precipitation changes over the 21st century
  ...5. Snowfall-driven growth in East Antarctic Ice Sheet mitigates recent sea-level rise, ''Science'', '''308''', 1898-1901.</ref>). It is worth noting that th ...f the Arctic &ndash; an experiment carried out in the Beaufort and Chukchi Sea region of the Arctic in 1997-1998) experiment in the Arctic, much work has
  18 KB (2,723 words) - 15:33, 6 August 2014
• Prospects for marine invasions by non-indigenous species
  ...ove &ndash; except in the case of large mammals from small islands. In the sea, though, there is not a single case of an invading NIS being successfully r ...nd the only region within the Antarctic to show physiologically meaningful sea temperature increases to date (Meredith and King, 2005<ref name="Meredith a
  13 KB (2,063 words) - 15:33, 6 August 2014
• Recommendations
  ...our has started to become highly significant in relation to changes in sea level. Recommendations for satellite observations of the cryosphere are given in ...uires special efforts to obtain ''in-situ'' observations of Southern Ocean sea ice properties.
  14 KB (2,069 words) - 16:14, 22 August 2014
• Ross Sea shelf waters in the instrumental period
  ...tal Shelf. In: Eds G. Spezie and G.M.R. Manzella, Oceanography of the Ross Sea Antarctica, Springer-Verlag Italia, Milano, 3-16.</ref>). ...nd S.S. Jacobs (1994) Temporal changes in shelf water of the southern Ross Sea, ''Antarct. J. of the U.S.'', '''29'''(5), 123-124.</ref>) noted that salin
  8 KB (1,297 words) - 15:33, 6 August 2014
• Sea ice biological and physical modeling
  ...h (Garrison, 1991<ref name="Garrison, 1991">Garrison, D.L. 1991. Antarctic sea ice biota, ''Am. Zool.'', '''31''', 17-33.</ref>). ...l dynamics in Antarctic pack ice. In: Lizotte MP, Arrigo K (eds) Antarctic sea ice: biological processes, interactions and variability, vol 73. American G
  18 KB (2,786 words) - 15:33, 6 August 2014
• Sea ice change over the 21st century
  .... Evaluation of the simulation of the annual cycle of Arctic and Antarctic sea ice coverages by 11 major global climate models, J. Geophys. Res., 111, doi ...found Twenty First Century deceases of 34% for sea-ice volume and 24% for sea-ice extent.
  4 KB (684 words) - 15:33, 6 August 2014
• Sea ice observations
  ...</ref>) compiled a circumpolar map of the monthly variation of the average sea ice edge, based on data from ships&rsquo; logs during the 1920s and 1930s. ...ed in many quarters and cannot be regarded as proof of a major decrease in sea ice extent between the 1940s and 1970s.
  18 KB (2,972 words) - 17:53, 22 August 2014
• Sea level observations
  ==Monitoring sea level== ...ally hostile areas to the same standard as is possible elsewhere. Most sea level measurements during the 19^th and 20^th centuries were
  11 KB (1,784 words) - 15:33, 6 August 2014
• Small-scale processes in the Southern Ocean
  ...l &mdash; as well as in transporting the momentum input by the wind to the level of topographic obstacles, such as ridges, where it may be transferred to th .... 2004. Internal wave generation in a global baroclinic tide model, ''Deep-Sea Res. II'', '''51''', 3043-3068.</ref>) and internal lee waves (Naveira Gara
  18 KB (2,816 words) - 15:33, 6 August 2014
• Temperature changes in the instrumental period
  ...Budd, 1998">Jacka, T.H. and Budd, W.F. 1998. Detection of temperature and sea-ice-extent changes in the Antarctic and Southern Ocean, 1949-96, ''Annals o ...dsky Station has experienced the largest statistically significant (&lt;5% level) trend of +0.53 o C/dec for the period 1951-2006. Rothera station, some 300
  30 KB (4,676 words) - 18:04, 22 August 2014
• Terrestrial biological responses to climate change
  ...size at low altitude and close to the coast, surrounded by either hostile sea or ice (Bergstrom and Chown, 1999<ref name="Bergstrom and Chown, 1999">Berg ...', 179-197.</ref>) for a variety of different species, and is based on the level of cosmopolitanism (dispersal model) or endemism (vicariance model) (Gibson
  21 KB (3,069 words) - 18:14, 22 August 2014
• The Amundsen and Bellingshausen seas in the instrumental period
  ...-5.</ref>). A comprehensive field study on Antarctic krill in the Amundsen Sea has yet to be conducted. ..., Jacobs, S.S., Larter, R.D. and Gohl, K. 2007. Bathymetry of the Amundsen Sea continental shelf: Implications for geology, oceanography, and glaciology,
  11 KB (1,650 words) - 15:34, 6 August 2014
• The Antarctic cryosphere
  ...meridional extent and fronts of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, ''Deep-Sea Res.'', '''42''', 641-673.</ref>) and bathymetry from the General Bathymetr ..., which lies along the 165&ordm;E meridian on the western side of the Ross Sea) ([[:File:Figure 1.1a - Map of Antarctica.png|Figure 1.1a]], [[:File:Figure
  15 KB (2,479 words) - 15:34, 6 August 2014
• The Antarctic marine ecosystem in the year 2100
  ...ges, inshore and offshore waters around the Antarctic Peninsula and at the sea ice margin as well as along the Antarctic Convergence (Polar Front) are the ...biodiversity, though not in so dramatic a manner as in the western Weddell Sea. Between now and 2100 elevated air and water temperature will not have rise
  20 KB (3,055 words) - 15:34, 6 August 2014
• The Antarctic Peninsula cryosphere in the instrumental period
  ...ent increases in snowfall on the peninsula suggested a contribution to sea level of approximately -0.003 mm/yr (Morris and Mulvaney, 2004<ref name="Morris a .... Implications of the break-up of the Wordie Ice Shelf, Antarctica for sea level rise, ''Antarctic Science'', '''5'''(4), 403-408.</ref>) culminated in cata
  40 KB (6,031 words) - 18:17, 22 August 2014
• The Australian sector in the instrumental period
  ...rctic Basin is supplied by two sources of Antarctic Bottom Water: the Ross Sea and Ad&eacute;lie Land. Lower) Changes in the deep potential temperature &n ...e jets, aligned with streamlines that can be traced using maps of absolute sea surface height (Sokolov and Rintoul, 2002<ref name="Sokolov and Rintoul, 20
  14 KB (2,205 words) - 15:34, 6 August 2014
• The climate of the Antarctic and its variability
  .... Where snow melts, exposing large patches of bare (dark) ground, or where sea ice melts exposing ice free (dark) ocean, solar radiation will be absorbed ...s C on the 50 hPa pressure surface (roughly 20 km elevation above mean sea level). Generated from the NCEP reanalysis using their online, interactive chart
  12 KB (1,933 words) - 16:38, 22 August 2014
• The East Antarctic cryosphere in the instrumental period
  ...5. Snowfall-driven growth in East Antarctic Ice Sheet mitigates recent sea-level rise, ''Science'', '''308''', 1898-1901.</ref>), but ice core data do not s ...ated to changing adjacent ocean conditions, as in the case of the Amundsen Sea outlets, or whether they are just longer-term responses of a regional dynam
  5 KB (726 words) - 15:34, 6 August 2014
• The Greenhouse world - from the breakup of Gondwana to 34 million years ago
  ...Jurassic Period of the Mesozoic Era. The Gondwanan fragments separated by sea-floor spreading largely between around 100 to 65 Ma, during the Cretaceous ...n, B. and Escutia, C. 2007. Onset of Cenozoic Antarctic Glaciation, ''Deep Sea. Research'', '''54''', 2293-2307.</ref>). Recently, using neodymium isotope
  20 KB (3,076 words) - 15:34, 6 August 2014
• The Icehouse world - the last 34 million years
  ...., Bralower, T.J. and Premoli-Silva, I. 2003. A Transient Rise in Tropical Sea Surface Temperature During the Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum, ''Science' ...S.F. 2008. A View of Antarctic Ice-Sheet Evolution from Sea-Level and Deep-Sea Isotope Changes During the Late Cretaceous-Cenozoic. In: Cooper AK, Barrett
  27 KB (4,257 words) - 15:34, 6 August 2014
• The ice sheet in the instrumental period
  ...tip of the Antarctic Peninsula, another within the rarely visited Amundsen Sea sector of West Antarctica. ...nding of the complexity of the issues, its importance to understanding sea level rise has meant that measurement of the ice sheet&rsquo;s mass balance has b
  20 KB (3,052 words) - 16:00, 6 August 2014
• The impact of global climate change in polar marine environments
  ...ts on the physiology of stenothermal organisms as well as on the extent of sea ice, hence on the life history and biology of many species (but see Barnes ...rly vulnerable, even though warming is more evident in the air than in the sea as is evident from IPCC reports. The polar regions are undergoing more rapi
  14 KB (2,188 words) - 15:34, 6 August 2014
• The IPCC fourth assessment report
  ...here and geosphere in the Earth System. Given the likely effects on global sea levels of melting ice at the poles, considerable attention is now being pai ...model is made up of sub-models that simulate either the atmosphere, ocean, sea ice, or land surface. These sub-models are coupled together to allow intera
  33 KB (5,155 words) - 15:34, 6 August 2014
• The last million years
  ...ss of ice on global sea level. Finally we review the influence of changing sea ice distributions on climate. #[[Antarctic deglaciation and its impact on global sea level]]
  1 KB (164 words) - 15:34, 6 August 2014
• The open ocean system in the instrumental period
  ...nson, 2004<ref name="Parkinson, 2004">Parkinson, C.L. 2004. Southern Ocean sea ice and its wider linkages: insights revealed from models and observations, ...in an area of at most 2 million km² (10 % of the entire winter sea ice cover), which translates to a density of one blue whale per 6 km<sup>2<
  28 KB (4,437 words) - 15:34, 6 August 2014
• The physical setting of Antarctica
  ...meridional extent and fronts of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current, ''Deep-Sea Res.'', '''42''', 641-673.</ref>) and bathymetry from the General Bathymetr ...ore continuations of the continental ice sheet) and the areas of fast ice (sea-ice that has become frozen to ice shelves or to the land and does not drift
  8 KB (1,295 words) - 16:38, 6 August 2014
• The Southern Ocean in the instrumental period
  ...er with neutral density &gt; 28.4 kg/m³ is found in the Weddell Sea (Orsi et al., 1999<ref name="Orsi et al, 1999">Orsi, A.H., Johnson, G.C. an ...004. Decadal-scale variations of water mass properties in the deep Weddell Sea, ''Ocean Dynamics'', '''54''', 77-91.</ref>). To take into account the circ
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• The transition to Holocene interglacial conditions
  ...bach, D., Barbante, C., Gabrielli, P. and Gaspari, V. 2006. Southern Ocean sea-ice extent, productivity and iron flux over the past eight glacial cycles, ...erature is an integrated quantity that may correspond to either changes in sea surface temperature in the dominant evaporation areas or to geographical ch
  32 KB (4,956 words) - 15:34, 6 August 2014
• The West Antarctic cryosphere in the instrumental period
  ...<ref name="Mercer, 1968">Mercer, J.H. 1968. Antarctic ice and Sangamon sea level, IASH publ. 79, 217-225.</ref>) suggested that full collapse of the West An ...largest changes were observed by satellite to be occurring in the Amundsen Sea sector. Each area is discussed in the following sections, beginning with th
  17 KB (2,692 words) - 15:34, 6 August 2014